Results, Discussions, and Conclusions Sections: A Comparative Analysis

Research Papers Sections Analysis-Integrative Assignment                   

Godoy, B., Goyeneche, X., & Furlano, P.

Results, Discussions, and Conclusions Sections: A Comparative Analysis

A research article (RA) is the medium through which people make public the results of their research. They can vary in structure across academic disciplines, but in general, most articles contain the following components: a Title, an Abstract, an Introduction, the Study Methodology, the Study's Results backed up with graphs and tables to report the data, Discussion of the Results, Strengths and Limitations, and a References Section that lists all sources consulted for the article (Swales & Feak, 1994). The aim of this paper is to make a comparative analysis of the Results, Discussions and Conclusions sections of two research articles that belong to two completely different areas, namely educational and medicine field.

Extremely noteworthy is the difference as regards the structure choice, since both articles differ in the way they organize the sections of the papers. While Di Angelantonio, Chowdhury, Sarwar, Aspelund, Danesh and Gudnason’s (2010) medical article exposes the three sections found in RAs separately, Barrs’s (2012) educational paper presents results and discussions jointly, leaving the conclusions in a single section. Nevertheless, both authors include all the information that these sections need to have.

Concerning Discussions section, both of them are descriptive in nature. They summarize their findings relating them to prior studies. The medicine article devotes the section to restate the key findings with reference to the original question as well as reminds the reader of the overall study. On the other hand, in the educational article, there is not a separation between Discussions and Results sections. The author reiterates the hypothesis proposed, points out the most important results and interprets the data making use of tables, formatted according to APA (2007) standards, to present the main findings of the study, delving into interpretation of outcomes in the same section.

Regarding the presentation of data, although both research articles use texts with the past simple tense, as well as tables and figures to state results (Swales & Feak , 1994), they differ from in the way they account for results. While Di Angelantonio et al. (2010) seems to have a more direct way, Barrs (2012) divides this sections into two parts and makes use of persuasive arguments as a useful writing technique to discuss the proposed topic.  This disparity seems to be connected with the purpose of each article. Whilst the medicine article focuses on interpreting statistical data, the educational paper centers its attention in analyzing and interpreting results.

According to Swales (1990), the Results section should summarize the data with text, tables, and/or figures. Both Results sections begin first with text and then refer the reader to tables and figures in order to highlight the evidence needed to answer the questions/hypotheses being investigated. The education research paper interprets and compares results, gives examples and explanations of the information stated in graphics. On the contrary the medicine article author uses a more concise and objective style which may be more complex to understand, particularly if you are not familiarized with the field.         

The American Psychological Association (APA) (2007) establishes some basic rules as regards the formatting of tables. The education research article respects certain requirements; all tables are correctly numbered, and each one has an individual title, which is italicized and correctly capitalized. Contrary to this, the medicine article does not comply with certain rules as tittles are neither italicized nor presented with each word capitalized. Whereas Di Angelantonio et al. (2010) uses notes below tables to clarify the information presented, Barrs (2012) omits them; this may be because the information seems easier to (be understood) understand and also because the author explains, interprets and evaluates results in the same section.

Most typically, persuasive- argumentative texts are used in the Conclusion section to convince the readers that the writer’s findings are of utmost importance. In the educational paper the author analyzes a particular situation, gives his point of view, determines the causes of the obtained results and makes recommendations under the light of certain circumstances. In the medicine article, on the other hand, De Angelantonio et al. (2010) shows his conclusions making use of words that signal his readers to understand and follow his way of thinking.

In the Conclusions sections, both RAs answer the questions or hypotheses previously stated. Furthermore they summarize what they have found and also suggest directions for future research. Particularly remarkable is the difference as regards the length of the conclusion sections; while De Angelantonio et al. (2010) devote just a nine-line paragraph to this section in his medical paper; Barrs (2010) organizes his conclusions in five paragraphs.

In the medicine article the authors limit themselves to state objectively and concisely the main findings whereas in the education paper the author not only points out main findings but also analyzes and reflects upon them. Di Angelantonio et al. (2010) use the present simple tense to show certainty about the statements; conversely, Barrs (2012) utilizes tentative language and modal verbs since in the education field it is not appropriate to show sureness about results and outcomes.

Overall both research articles from the two different fields, education and medicine, comply with certain norms required for the design of discussions, results and conclusions sections. The authors describe the situation in a clear and direct way, considering what is relevant to the topic, focusing on the objectives of the research. They provide the necessary explanations, considering the readers’ knowledge and give clear explanations of the literature reviewed as well as the illustrations presented; in this way, they account for the clarity and the reality principles applying for the conventions of proficient academic writing.

References

American Psychological Association  (2007) . Concise rules of APA style. Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Barrs, K. (2012). Fostering computer- mediated L2 interaction beyond the classroom. Language Learning & Technology, 16  (1), 10-25. Retrieved April 2013 from:http://llt.msu.edu/issues/february2012/actionresearch.pdf

Di Angelantonio, E. ,Chowdhury, R., Sarwar, N., Aspelund, T., Danesh, J., & Gudnason, V. (2010). Chronic kidney disease and risk of major cardiovascular disease and non-vascular mortality: prospective population based cohort study. British Medical Journal, 341: c4986. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c4986.

          

          Swales,  J. M.  (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J. M., & Feak, C.B.  (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Welcome again!

Dear all, the aim of this blog is to keep involved with academic contexts, in order to promote conscious reading, writing expertise development and information sharing. To keep growing in this discourse community and to continue towards becoming professionals, we are faced up with a new challenge; we are asked to work with others not only in the editing but also in the production of academic articles.

The journey continues, and this time I have in my boat two wonderful peers. These two marvelous souls, Ximena Goyeneche and Patricia Furlano, are rowing with me since last year. Each of us has taken a role in this academic ship; we co-construct research articles by working together inside and outside a wiki. But, more important is the fact that we are there to back up each other, like a captain look after his sailors.

You are invited to travel with me throughout the sea of knowledge

Yours, Bárbara  

A Critique on Bailey’s (2006) Academic Writing Book

In his book, Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, Bailey (2006) elucidates “the writing process and covers all the key writing skills” (p.i) with the intention of teaching academic English writing skills and to give practice on the formal writing aspects, i.e. conventions, acknowledging sources, layout, style. This significant book is proposed for “overseas” (p.iii) students studying at English colleges and universities who want to capitalize on academic potential.

Bluntly organized into four parts, namely, The Writing Process, Elements of Writing, Accuracy in Writing and Writing Models, the book offers varied writing tasks, short explanations, extra exercises, and material to assist students in writing academic texts. Whereas the first two parts guides learners on the process of understanding the title to its subsequent proofreading, the last two parts offer revision and reference; Useful models are presented to students, intended to offer opportunities to practice those areas which are difficult for them or to have reference of the types of writing they may need.

According to Bailey (2006) “the structure of the book has been made as simple as possible” (p. ii) as students might exploit the book “in the classroom or self-study” (p. i). For students to use it autonomously, more explanations are needed. It seems that the first part of the manual might need the teacher's guidance. Bailey’s (2006) book would have been more suitable for English-medium learners, if the author had presented clearer explanations and handy examples for guiding students in task completion.

Academic writing is complemented with a Cross-reference and a Writing Test section that helps students to further exploit the units. Since the two last parts of the book are organized alphabetically, Bailey (2006) underlines that this “allow them [students] to find what they want quickly” (p. iii). This design leads students to jump from one unit to the other. The book would have been a “practical and easy-to-use guide” (p.i), if the author had organized the explanations relating the topics.

The writing test section contains four small tests for students (to) check their progress and identify weak areas. Had Bailey (2006) designed tests that integrate writing skills, accuracy and grammar practices, students would have got profit of this section. Answers for close-ended activities are also provided. Particularly important in the inclusion of model answers for open-ended tasks, which might serve as models for students’ responses.

Of equal concern is the selection of topics for students to write pieces of academic texts. Since Bailey (2006) recognizes that “the type of writing they are asked to do depends on the subject they are studying” (p.iii), the book offers a variety of topics to work on. Nevertheless, the book does not offer useful links to search for valuable information for the essays. Had the author added a reference section for students to look for specific information, students would have control over the topics proposed.

On the whole, Bailey (2006) succeeded in recognizing non-native students’ needs and in designing diverse kinds of activities to ensure that their writing skills meet the necessary academic standards of a discourse community. Whilst advanced learners might profit from the exercises while acquiring specific knowledge, Bailey’s (2006) book would have been more useful, if the author had graded the activities from teacher’s guided to freer ones accompanying the latter with suitable explanations, concise examples, a different cross-referencing layout and a list of sources to find suitable information. Had this been fruitfully achieved, the result would have been not only remarkably convenient but also unquestionable for its users.

Reference

Bailey, S. (2006). Academic Writing: A handbook for international students. (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis e-library. 
Retrieved from http://npu.edu.ua/!e-book/book/djvu/A/ii_kgpm_27.pdf

Stockwell’s (2012) reply to Ballance’s (2012) commentary: An annotated bibliography

Source: Stockwell, G. (2012). Working with constraints in mobile learning: A response to Ballance.  Language Learning & Technology. 16 (3), 24-31. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2012/stockwell.pdf

In his online periodical article, Stockwell (2012) responds to Ballance’s (2012) claims by explaining not only the nature of the activities presented, but also the purpose of introducing Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) outside the classroom. In order to back up his explanation, the author provides evidence from his previous articles to answer Ballance’s (2012) criticism pointing out relevant information, explaining that when selecting the activities, he considers students preferences, needs, particular reality and the learning environment.

Stockwell (2012) exposes the need to engage language learners in vocabulary activities and take advantage of dead time, highlighting the usefulness of this approach. He highlights that students would be utilizing an everyday device to learn vocabulary, and that the tasks could be completed, for instance when travelling. He also points out advantages of using the pre-smart phone platform since, contrary to Ballance’s (2012) conclusion, the majority of students are not smart-phone users and activities completion does not require high technology command.

Since foreign language students usually have limited opportunities to approach the target language only in the classroom, Stockwell (2012) reflects on these issues declaring that technology should be used wisely to maximize learning opportunities; he also points out that teachers should choose technologies available in the current environment or the ones that they can master. He defends his research in a trustworthy way, supporting his answers with significant extracts of his earlier works to explain himself.

References

Ballance, O.J. (2012). Mobile language learning: More than just “the platform”. Language Learning & Technolog. 16 (3), 21-23. Retrieved from  http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2012/ballance.pdf

Stockwell, G. (2010). Using Mobile Phones for Vocabulary Activities: Examining the Effect of the Platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95–110. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/ vol14num2/stockwell.pdf 

An outline on Ballance’s (2012) commentary on Stockwell’s (2010) article

Purpose: To illustrate Ballace’s (2012) position as regards using Stockwell’s (2010) study into the effects of Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) on vocabulary activities in Second Language classrooms.

Audience: Teachers and second language students. Educators and professionals interested in technology.

Thesis statement: According to Ballance (2010), Stockwell’s (2010) results in the empirical research do not guarantee success in Second Language classrooms, due to the rapid pace of technological development as well as its limited scope.

1.      Stockwell’s (2010) findings are obsolete since students entered to a new MALL research area.  

1.1.   Rapid pace of technology

1.2.   i-Phone and Android platform was already released

1.3.   Pre-smart phones weakness

1.3.1.     Internet access cost

1.3.2.     Scrolling time

1.3.3.     Small screens and keypads

2.      Smartphone’s benefits

2.1.    Wi-Fi admission

2.2.   Application (apps) integrated

2.3.   Touch screens

3.      Activities designed were not appropriate for the use of MALL

3.1.   They were designed for pen and paper or computer completion

3.2.   The PC and mobile phone platform were similar

3.2.1.     Students would choose to work with PC platform

3.2.2.     Students would choose to work with the mobile phone platform

3.3.   They prevent students to take advantage of “dead time”

4.      Conclusion

4.1.   The data gathered does not show the usefulness of using MALL in classroom environment. 

References

Ballance, O.J. (2012). Mobile language learning: More than just “the platform”.Language Learning & Technology. 16 (3), 21-23. 

Retrieved from  http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2012/ballance.pdf

Stockwell, G. (2010). Using Mobile Phones for Vocabulary Activities: Examining the Effect of the Platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95–110. 

Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/ vol14num2/stockwell.pdf 

Becoming Academic Writers Using Wikipedia: An Academic Summary of Tardy’s (2010) article

The article Writing for the World: Wikipedia as an Introduction to Academic Writing (Tardy, 2010) depicts the usefulness of utilizing the online encyclopedia Wikipedia to help second language (L2) students to become academic writers. Tardy (2010) describes the process to compose an article for students to gain master literacy skills while writing an article for the online resource focusing on a real audience. 

To write a formal text, learners need to be acquainted with some specific knowledge of the academic genre. Tardy (2010) states that “it is useful to begin by finding out what students … know” (p.14). After sharing Wikipedia articles and analyzing their common features, students can be conducted on the procedures of outlining and paraphrasing, formatting sources, checking grammar, and publishing their works, applying Wikipedia conventions.

According to Tardy (2010), “the Wikipedia-writing project described [in the text] introduces students to many skills of academic research writing in a manageable and interested way” (p. 18). As learners are aware that the page is available for everyone to post and edit any text and that it reaches masses all over the world, they may feel enthusiastic for having the chance to publish for a worldwide audience. Moreover, they “enjoy the satisfaction of seeing their work published on a high-traffic global website” (Tardy, 2010. p. 18).

On the whole, although academic writing posts lots of challenges to L2 students, by exploiting Wikipedia, they can discover many of the skills needed to write a coherent text while working with a well-known source and for a real public.  By considering Tardy’s practical step-by-step guide, students will improve their academic skills so as to become members of the academic writing community.

Reference

Tardy, C. M. (2010). Writing for the world: Wikipedia as an introduction to Academic Writing. English Teaching Forum, 1, pp. 12-19, 27. Retrieved from http://exchanges.state.gov/englishteaching/forum/archives/docs/10-48-1-c.pdf

Inconsistencies in Citing Sources

APA format is a standard set of conventions for formatting academic texts. There is a recognized need for standardization of these formats in order to make it easier for readers to be able to understand texts with the greatest possible ease and efficiency. Moreover, citing appropriately gives credibility and prestige to the writers.

The article written by Dalvit et al., (2005) follows some of the requirements proposed by the American Psychological Association (APA), as regards citing sources. The APA style format sets the rules for in-text citations and reference pages (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012).

Although Dalvit et al., (2005) combine different ways of referring to the wok of others, such as paraphrasing, summarizing, citing an organization, among others, they do not make use of direct quotes. This fact prevents the text to flow naturally.  Furthermore the authors make use of signal phrases. When summarizing the interviews made with lecturers, in their article Dalvit et al. (2005) use in text-citation such as:

“The tutor and the students indicated that besides lack of exposure to computers up to the university level, this might be due to two sets of factors: language problems and problems of communication and organization in the classroom” (Dalvit et al., 2005, p 73).

Paraphrasing is used to restate ideas and information using the writer’s words, for instance, “According to Heugh (2002), little has changed since the end of Apartheid.” (Dalvit et al., 2005, p 72). All the quotes written in the article follow the rules provided by the APA manual. Regarding summarizing all of them have the author’s last name and date of publication (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012). When paraphrasing, each quote follows APA conventions, that is, the author’s last name and only the date of publication in parenthesis are used. (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012)

The reference list does not follow all the requirements proposed by the APA manual. Firstly, the word “reference” is not in the centre of the first line and it is in bold font. Secondly, entries do not begin flush left and additional lines are not indented five spaces. (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012). Thirdly, although the reference list is alphabetized, entries with two authors do not include the ampersand but the word “and”, as in the case of “Halliday, M.A.K. and Martin, J.R.” (Dalvit et al., p 75).

When citing books, online dictionaries and articles, the authors capitalize all words except short ones, for instance: “Heugh, K. (2002). The Case Against Bilingual and Multilingual Education in South Africa: Laying Bare the Myths. Perspectives in Education” (Dalvit et al., p 75). The APA manual suggests that only the first letter of the word of the book is capitalized. (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012). The only issue that coincides with the rules set by the APA manual is that when citing online sources the authors include the retrieval entry, since the content of these resources might be updated. (The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2012)

Overall, after analyzing the article it can be seen that the amount of knowledge on these standardized formats is not enough to write an academic paper. This might have a negative impression in the discourse communities who are acquainted with APA principles on how to write properly. Acknowledging sources would give not only reputation but also reliability to the authors.

References

Dalvit, L., Murray, S. and Terzoli, A. (2005). Providing increased access to English L2

students of computer science at a South African University. US-China  Education Review, Sep. 2005, Vol. 2 (9)

Halliday, M.A.K. & Martin, J.R. (1993). Writing science: Literacy and discursive power.

Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. In Dalvit, L., Murray, S. and Terzoli, A. (2005). Providing increased access to English L2 students of computer science at a South African University. US-China Education Review, Sep. 2005, Vol. 2 (9)

Heugh, K. (2002). The case against bilingual and multilingual education in South Africa:

laying bare the myths. Perspectives in education, 20, 1-196. In Dalvit, L., Murray, S. and Terzoli, A. (2005). Providing increased access to English L2 students of computer science at a South African University. US-China Education Review, Sep. 2005, Vol. 2 (9)

The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. (2012). In-Text Citations:

The Basics. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/2012-03-14

The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. (2012). Reference List: Basic Rules.  Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/05/2012-07-27